Culture and Unconscious Fantasy: Observations on Courtly Love
Koenigsberg, R.A. (1967). Culture and Unconscious Fantasy: Observations on Courtly Love. Psychoanalytic Review, 54A:36-50.
PART 1
It is not uncommon nowadays for the literary critic, as he becomes aware that his role as cultural authority is being usurped by the psychiatrist, to embrace the conceptual language of psychoanalysis in his interpretations of literary and historical documents, attempting as it were to integrate the humanistic and the scientific, and in so doing to achieve a richer, more balanced view of man's nature. The result, more often than not, reflects a partial understanding of unconscious dynamics which serves only to distort the non-analytic critical function.
An earlier article in this Journal, Courtly Love: Neurosis as Institution,1 is a case in point. When analytic concepts are used, they are used unsystematically and inappropriately. More to the point, weak sociological explanations are used where dynamic psychological ones are called for. For example, to note only a few instances of this method, the necessity that Courtly Love be adulterous is explained in terms of the fact that, "There were not enough noble-women for each man;" 1 and it is suggested that the ambivalence embodied in the institution, "Was well-grounded, and much of it can be attributed to prudence." 2 In each case, the psychoanalytic principle of enlightened suspicion is ignored, and deeply-significant forms of social behavior are explained in terms of self-evident, 'rational' motivational assumptions.
It is the purpose of this paper to show that the code of conduct and pattern of behavior represented by Courtly Love reflected a clearly-defined and meaningful psychodynamic constellation, and that both the institutionalization of this code, and its historic persistence in the more general form of 'romantic love,' must be understood in terms of its capacity to provide a means of coping with a conflict which is universal in men. It will be noted, in addition, that the style of coping embodied in Courtly Love was revolutionary, and was, in most ways, superior to the resolutions suggested by previous Western ideologies.
PART 2
The Treatise on Love, written by Andreas Capellanus (Andreas the Chaplain) in the latter part of the twelfth century, represents the first effort to systematically record the rules of Courtly Love. The book was probably intended to portray conditions at Queen Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174; but the document which emerges is far more than a historical description or a book of etiquette. It is an espousal of a way of life. The pursuit of Love, and the adoration of the Lady, are represented as the sole means by which happiness may be achieved, and as worthy, therefore, of a man's total commitment.
The ideas which appear in the Treatise are usually traced by historians to Plato, to Ovid, and to the work of an Arab, Ibn Hazm. The search for the historical roots of Courtly Love, however, is relatively useless in terms of our effort to understand it. At best, the exploration of sources may illustrate that different cultures have had contact and that, to the extent they have been attracted to ideas which resemble one another, they possess a psychic similarity. Which is to say, the explanation of the cultural acceptance or espousal of an ideational complex must deal with the psychological function which these ideas serve for members of the culture in question.
In order to ascertain the psychological function of Courtly Love, we shall concentrate upon an extensive analysis of the Treatise, assuming that the essential unconscious meaning of the institution will be revealed in its pages. Having done this, we may be more confident in making statements concerning its historical significance.
PART 3
In the preface, the author indicates that the book was written as a favor to a friend, Walter, in order, "To make known by word of mouth and to teach … by my writings the way in which a state of love between two lovers may be kept unharmed." 3 After 159 pages of advice, instruction and demonstration, a third section appears in which Love is rejected, women denounced, and Walter is enjoined to forget all that he has learned. In a statement which reflects the confusion which is in the author's mind, Walter is told to "read this little book, not as one seeking to take up the life of a lover, but that, invigorated by the theory and trained to excite the minds of women to love, you may, by refraining from doing so, win an eternal recompense and thereby deserve a greater reward from God." 4 This final section, which is an attack upon women in the ecclesiastical tradition of misogyny, may be taken to be a concession to religion, or to the religious authorities of the time. The overall irreverence of the book, however (there is a section, for example, on the seduction of nuns), and the lack of tact in any form, suggest that Capellanus was concerned neither with propriety nor appeasement, and that the rejection of women reflected a hostility which was inherent in the author's mind. The author's ambivalence is handled by the compartmentalization of affect, love and hatred being represented in the dichotomous structure of the book.
The basic idea of Courtly Love, as described by Capellanus, is that the Lady is to be worshipped, that she is to be intensely desired and ardently pursued, not only because of her intrinsic beauty and nobility, but because of her capacity to endow the man with virtue through her acceptance of him. The Lady, in turn, is to judge her pursuer, not on the basis of incidental qualities, but upon the basis of his character, the latter being defined and demonstrated through the performance of acts of gentleness and courtesy. Since "All good deeds derive from Love," 5 the woman is obligated, indeed, has a social responsibility to accept the man if he can exhibit that he is worthy.
One of the rules of Courtly Love is that the man shall be "Obedient in all things to the commands of Ladies." 6 As one would expect, the behavior of the man to the woman, as he attempts to win her love, is extremely deferential, if not submissive. The most salient aspect of this deference involves the maintenance of emotional distance.
This becomes obvious in a series of dialogues in which Capellanus illustrates the proper way in which a man should go about gaining favor with a woman. The conversations are conducted in a rigid and formal manner. The man, in a ritual of praise, extols the virtues and the beauty of the Lady, complimenting her, in fact, in such an exaggerated way that, to the extent that one ignores the ritualistic nature of the speeches, one senses insincerity, the praise seeming a caricature of respect and affection.
The speeches, on the whole, have the tone of a debate, even when the bestowal of praise has the center-stage. The man argues his case, attempting to prove to the woman, through impeccable logic, that he is indeed worthy, that one need only be sensitive to the virtue of his arguments to realize that this is the case. Again, the overwhelming emotion which the man, we suppose, is feeling, comes through only in terms of the complexity of his histrionics. Typical of these speeches is the following excerpt which, except for the fact that it is the first line of one of the dialogues, is identical to others which appear throughout the book: "When the Divine Being made you there was nothing He left undone. I know that there is no defect in your good sense, none in you at all except, it seems to me, that you have enriched no one by your love." 7 (Though it is not our purpose here to trace the historical transitions which have occurred in the etiquette of love, one might note that the technique of seduction illustrated and discussed above, precisely because it seems so ritualistic, so contrived, and so argumentative, currently would be considered as constituting a 'line').
The woman, for her part, insists upon the distance between herself and the man and, going further than this, makes the man's task as difficult as possible, countering his arguments, insulting his good intentions, and humiliating him as he is in the very act of exposing his virtues. Though this behavior is also performed in a ritualistic manner, its sadistic overtones are obvious. For example, in one of the dialogues, the woman says, "You are trying to bolster up your errors with so much eloquence that it will not be easy for me to reply to your more-than-empty words." 8 And Castellanus, it seems, was not unaware of the sadistic motivation of the Lady. He says, early in the book, "A noblewoman or a woman of the higher nobility is found to be very ready and bold in censuring the deeds or the words of a man of the higher nobility, and she is glad if she has a good opportunity to say something to ridicule him." 9 That Castellanus does not protest against this behavior, and that he does not object to the entire ordeal which must be undergone for the sake of the Lady, suggest that masochistic submission to her will is a central psychological feature of Courtly Love.
Capellanus is quite concerned with the conditions which lend themselves to the development of Love and which, through their effect, "cause it to increase." Essentially, the state of Love originates and is maintained through the cultivation of desire. Though Capellanus does not emphasize the practice of coitus interruptus, which was to become an important aspect of Courtly Love, it is clear that the emphasis is upon longing rather than upon consummation. (On the very first page of the book, in defining his subject matter, Capellanus says, "Love is suffering.") 10 Love, therefore, may be increased by increasing the desire felt by one partner toward the other.
How is desire increased? Essentially, by maintaining a sense of distance from the beloved, and by preventing oneself from ever becoming too familiar with her. For example, love may be increased by having the lovers see each other rarely and with difficulty, or by having one of the lovers exhibit anger toward the other. The basic rules concerning the increase and maintenance of desire, however, are twofold: (1) One cannot love one's wife. (2) One must be jealous. The first proposition is self-evident. Since love and familiarity do not mix, and since marriage increases familiarity, it is incompatible with love. The second is related to the affinity between love and impotent longing: Jealousy makes the lover suffer. In addition, the existence of competitors indicates that one's beloved is especially desirable. Capellanus points out that, "Even though you know perfectly well that some other man is enjoying the embraces of your beloved, this will make you begin to value her solaces all the more." 11 If one is to love, one would do well to provoke in oneself the emotion of jealousy. (This jealousy, it should be mentioned, is directed, not toward the husband, since he is merely a prerequisite for a relationship and in other ways irrelevant, but toward other suitors for the Lady's love). That love and jealousy are almost inseparable is made clear when Capellanus flatly states, "He who is not jealous cannot love." 12
PART 4
In his First Contribution to the Psychology of Love Freud describes a special type of object-choice, effected by men, which is characterized by a series of conditions which the object must fulfill. The "series of conditions," as an examination of the paper will reveal, are virtually identical with the series of conditions which Capellanus describes as being crucial to the development and increase of love. As will become clear, the resemblance between the syndrome which Freud described and the syndrome which came to be called Courtly Love go beyond the structural similarities: it involves an instance in which a similar infantile phantasy, at different times and places, determined the shape of reality. In the case of Courtly Love, the collective phantasy was sufficiently wide-spread and intense to alter the nature of social reality.
The first condition which Freud describes, that "The person in question never chooses as an object of love a woman who is unattached, that is, a girl or an independent woman, but only one in regard to whom another man has some right of possession, whether as husband, betrothed, or dear friend" 16 corresponds to the Courtly Love rule that the lover be married. Secondly, Freud observes that, "Not until they have some occasion for jealousy does their passion reach its height and the woman acquire her full value to them, and they never fail to seize upon some incident by which this intensity of feeling may thus be called out." 17 This is nearly a translation of Capellanus' contention that jealousy is the essence of Love, and that one would do well to nurture this experience. In addition, Freud makes it explicit that it is not the husband toward whom jealousy is experienced: "Strange to say, it is not the lawful possessor of the loved one against whom this jealousy is directed, but new acquaintances or strangers in regard to whom she may be brought under suspicion." 18
Thirdly, the type of love which Freud described resembles Courtly Love in terms of the obsessive overvaluation of the love-object; and this in spite of the fact that she is an adulteress, and likely to be promiscuous and unreliable. Freud notes that, while in normal love between the sexes the value of the woman is measured according to her sexual integrity and sinks with any approach to the character of a 'light woman,' in this type of object-choice, despite the fact that the woman is sexually discredited and irreputable, the highest value is placed upon her as a love-object. Love for the woman, "Absorbs the whole of their mental energy, to the exclusion of all other interests." 19 One hardly need mention the resemblance between this all-consuming type of love and the reaction of the Courtly Lover to his Lady.
The final characteristic of the syndrome which Freud describes is the desire of the man to 'rescue' the beloved. Though the relationship here is not so direct as with the others, this desire has its parallel in the Courtly Lover's intention to do good deeds for his lady. The deeper relationship between the 'rescue' phantasy and Courtly Love, however, can be made clear only after we have examined the psychological roots of the syndromes.
PART 5
According to Freud, the choice of an object complying with these peculiar conditions is "derived from a fixation of the infantile feelings of tenderness for the mother and represent one of the forms in which this fixation expresses itself." 20 Courtly Love, then, in these terms, represents an institutionalized manifestation of an intense fixation upon the mother, its rules being designed to recreate the Oedipal situation and its corresponding affects. It is more than a random collection of ideas, more than a social arrangement reflecting various features of the changing medieval economic structure: it is a systematic organization of interpersonal relations, the conception of which is derived from and bound together by a shared unconscious phantasy.
Let us, at this point, trace the main elements of Courtly Love to their Oedipal roots and demonstrate the manner in which the 'conditions' of Courtly Love, like the conditions for the object choice described by Freud, represented a way of recreating the Oedipal situation on the level of adult reality. The interdependence of 'distance' and desire represented the need to recreate the love-object in the image of a remote, hardly accessible creature. To be an Oedipal substitute, it was necessary that the Lady be represented as a superior, infallible person, approachable in only the most delicate, tactful fashion. In addition, distance was necessitated by the forbidden nature of the love-object. An increase in familiarity destroyed desire, not only because it prevented idealization, but because it led to an increase in sexual temptation which was experienced as a threat and which, if intensified beyond a certain point, resulted in the complete repression of affect toward the woman. We are dealing here with a typical Oedipal conflict in which desire increases as the object is approached, but only up until the point when avoidance tendencies become stronger. An elaboration of this approach-avoidance motif, and a very concrete instance of it was the decision not to consummate the sexual act as represented in the idea of amor puris.
The necessity for the experience of jealousy and the need for a third party represent obvious instances of the reinstatement of the conditions of the Oedipus complex. In fact, Freud's argument that the necessity to involve oneself in relations characterized by these conditions is motivated by an unconscious desire for revenge upon the father, finds confirmation in Capellanus' assertion that scoldings and beatings which the lover suffers from the parents (and we may assume that the father was the primary administrator of them), "Give a perfect reason for beginning a love affair that has not yet begun." 13
In Courtly Love, the desire to rescue the beloved in order to preserve her virtue, as described by Freud, is transformed into the phantasy of being rescued by the beloved. The love affair provides confirmation of the worth of a man's character rather than an opportunity to salvage the character of a woman. On one level, the transformation of elements is easily explained: Unconsciously, in either case, the man is concerned with being the sole possessor of the woman. While the phantasy of rescuing the woman involves the need to protect her from the advances of other men, the phantasy of being saved by the acceptance of the Lady involves the belief that her approval amounts to a declaration of devotion which renders the advances of other men harmless. In the first case, the fear of infidelity is reduced by minimizing the woman's desire to seduce other men. In the second case, this fear is handled by having the woman declare that her lover exclusively possesses the qualities necessary to attract her and to hold her attention.
There is, however, a deeper and more interesting interpretation of this phantasy. In analyzing the unconscious meaning of the rescue phantasy Freud found that, "rescuing the mother acquires the significance of giving her a child," 21 and noted that this phantasy is related to, and embodied in, the child's "wish to be father himself." 22 This wish appears in the rules of Courtly Love: In winning the love of the Lady, it was one's character which counted, not one's birth.
The wish to be father of oneself was represented in a denial of the importance of one's heredity (and of one's dependence upon the father for status), and a declaration that it was one's character which determined one's worth. And, since the value of one's character was determined by the Lady, it becomes clear that approval by her represented an alternative means of defining one's potency. When one of the speakers in a dialogue says, "Any man's nobility is determined more by his character than by his birth," 14 he is asserting that his potency is a function of his own efforts (and of the response of his Lady), rather than of that which has been passed onto him by his father. To be accepted by the Lady, then, is—unconsciously—to be permitted to have a child by her and to become father of oneself.*
* One may speculate upon the relationship between this aspect of the Oedipus complex and the development of the concepts of equality-at-birth and achieved status, especially with respect to the role which the Courtly Love ideology has played in their historical evolution. It is not impossible that the power, tenacity and extensive appeal of the idea that one's character and achievements are more important than one's birth is rooted in the unconscious need to deny one's dependence upon the sexual activity of the father for one's existence. If all men are equal at birth, then no man is dependent upon heredity for status, and, consequently, one's own potency is independent of the potency of one's father.
PART 6
We noted earlier that ambivalence toward women is inherent in the structure of Capellanus' work: Following a tract on the profound importance of Love and on the nobility and beauty of the Lady, women are denounced without reservation, and one is strongly advised to avoid carrying out the course of instruction. At the essence of this rejection of women is Capellanus' disgust at her moral worthlessness, her disobedience, her fickleness, and her sexual inconstancy. He laments that, "A woman cannot deny the solaces of the body when they are asked for." 15 And yet, Capellanus has insisted that the woman worthy of being loved is an adulteress, and that her promiscuity, by virtue of its capacity to provoke jealousy and desire, is one of the bases for her appeal. Since he is, at the very least, ambivalent toward the woman's promiscuity and inconstancy, we are confronted with the following paradox: Why does Capellanus give sanction to-indeed insist upon-forms of behavior of which he does not approve? Why does he insist that love must occur outside of marriage, and why does he encourage the woman's tendency to taunt her lover with admissions of infidelity when he is simultaneously disgusted by this type of behavior?
The answer to this question lies in the peculiar tendency of the ego to revive and recreate infantile trauma, and to attempt to master them in the present.* In insisting that the Lady be married, in sanctioning her tendency to provoke jealousy in him, the Courtly Lover is attempting to recreate the conditions of the Oedipal triangle, to reconstruct in adult reality the basic trauma of his childhood. And in attempting to win the Lady's love and to hold it forever, in spite of her marriage to another man, in spite of her fickleness, he is attempting to deny the original victory by the father and to come to terms with the trauma. The Courtly Lover involves himself in situations which resemble the situation in which his mother was lost to his father. In thus courting the original resolution, the lover attempts to undo it and to resolve it in another, more satisfactory way: with himself as victor and all other potential lovers defeated.
Capellanus' ambivalence provides a clue to the other essential characteristics of Courtly Love: The idealization of the Lady and the masochistic submission to her.
The child's knowledge of the infidelity of the mother, in the classical description of the Oedipus complex, is bound up with his discovery of her participation in sexuality. This discovery is anxiety-provoking, because it leads to excessive excitation, and hostilitygenerating, because it reveals the mother's infidelity in its most concrete and irrevocable form.** Concurrent with this disappointment and serving as a defense against it, is the tendency to regard the mother as "a personification of impeccable moral purity," 23 and to deny her involvement in sexual activities.
** We are emphasizing in the following discussion, for purposes of simplicity, the ego rather than the id aspects of this phenomenon. Obviously, the revival of an infantile situation involves a renewed attempt at obtaining a previously denied gratification as well as an attempt to master the pain of frustration and loss.
The contempt for the mother, of course, goes beyond his knowledge of her sexual involvement with the father: The child perceives her as a castrated person. (This seems to be on Capellanus' mind when he says, "There is nothing in the world more wearisome than to meditate too intently on the nature or characteristics of a woman." 16
The extreme idealization of the Lady, in light of the above, may be understood as a way of coming to terms with unconscious hostility and disappointment. In attempting to repress his ambivalence, in attempting to keep his love pure and untainted by contradictory emotions, the Courtly Lover conceived of the Lady as a faultless creature. If the speeches seem hollow to us now, unnecessarily exaggerated and melodramatic, it is likely that an increase in psychological sophistication lies beneath our change in taste. The Courtly Lover protests too much. Beneath the echoes of praise we detect the voice of hostility, the secret loathing for an unfaithful and castrated creature.
The masochistic submission to the Lady represents merely an extension and elaboration of the reactive love, the repression of hostility being transformed into self-contempt. The stance of respect and humility is in the nature of a compensatory mechanism, the courtesy and gentleness, which were the essence of the Courtly attitude, serving as a reaction-formation against an underlying sadism.
PART 7
The instance of Courtly Love provides a concrete example of the manner in which the psychological needs of individuals may give rise to and become embodied in a social institution. The argument that personal phantasy may determine the structure of institutions, while bewildering to those sociologists who prefer to think of culture as essentially external to man and as governed by laws which are independent of human motivation, is a perfectly justifiable one. The psychoanalyst does not deny that social institutions exist prior to any given man, and that they have an objectivity which limits the extent to which the actions or phantasies of any individual may alter them. He asserts, however, that the origin of institutions and their tendency to persist and preserve themselves in a relatively stable form, may be understood within a psychological framework.
The hypothetical process, if Courtly Love may be taken as prototypical, is not difficult to formulate: The ego, in attempting to come to terms with an infantile trauma or conflict, seeks a revival of the pathogenic stimuli. The ego scans the external world, hoping to discover patterns of events which resemble the structure of the situation in which the original traumata or conflict-generating experience occurred. Once an adequate situation has been discovered or invented, the individual participates in it, hoping the repetition of the experience under less threatening conditions will lead to a mastery of it. The ego seeks, in short, to achieve a transference relation with the elements of culture, both human and material, and to come to terms with the original experience by acting it out on the level of reality.
If an unconscious complex is shared by a sufficient number of persons in a culture, and if an imaginative modus operandi can be invented, social reality, possessing no inherent or fixed structure, may come to achieve the form which is dictated by the phantasy. Courtly Love, in these terms, was a projection of the competition with the father onto the external world and represented a way of resolving the Oedipus complex through the attempt to defeat the previously victorious father.
Once unconscious phantasy becomes embodied in a social institution a new process comes into play: individuals born into the culture are provided with pre-defined patterns of acting out. The responses to basic unconscious complexes are determined by the existent social institutions. And the persistence of these culturally defined patterns may be understood in terms of their capacity to provide more or less adequate means of coping with infallible conflict.
PART 8
At the root of Courtly Love, then, was both a desire to revive the Oedipal competition with the father, and a need to deny the traumatic discovery of the mother's sexual nature. As we have noted, the fear, disappointment and hostility born of the knowledge of the mother's infidelity and the perception of her anatomy generated a reaction-formation which took the form of idealization. As an institutionalized response to the Oedipus complex, the idealization of the woman represented a radical departure from previous Western attitudes.
For the Greeks and later for the Christians, the fear and hostility born of the Oedipus complex led to a phobic avoidance and ritualistic devaluation of women. Protogenes, in summarizing the Greek position in Plutarch's dialogue On Love, disparages "That spineless and indoor love which dallies on the bosoms and beds of women, always pursuing and indulging in soft pleasures which are without manliness, friendship and exaltation," 24 and recommends in place of this base activity, "a noble love which attaches to a youthful (male) spirit." 25 The Greek solution to the 'woman problem,' then, consisted of a devaluation of women, a highly critical and hostile attitude toward her sensuality (as well as a cynical acceptance of it), and an idealization of the love of boys. As is so often the case clinically, a fear of female sexuality and of its debilitating consequences led to a defensive involvement in the less threatening practice of homosexuality. In this case, however, a neurotic symptom was elevated to a cultural ideal. The escape into homosexuality, to be condemned by later Western cultures was for the Greeks the institutionalized resolution of the Oedipus complex.
The Christian solution involved a denial of the dignity of women and of female sexuality which was even more extreme. When St. Paul asserted that it was "better to marry than to burn," he was reluctantly sanctioning union with the female on the grounds that sexual relief could only be obtained in marriage. But the man with self-control could do better: by mastering his sexual urge he could render marriage superfluous and could ignore women without personal sacrifice. The Christian solution represented an institutionalization of a male phobia: In man's fear of sexuality woman was defined as sinful and loathsome. This definition, imposed upon women by men, served as a rationalization on the cultural level. Man's fear of women was located within an ethical and religious context and his avoidance of her, therefore, could be fused with a sense of righteousness.*
* Psychologically, the exaltation of God cannot be detached from this misogyny. In renouncing one's desire for the female sexual object, one submits to the claims of the all-powerful father. The passive adoration of God (a sublimated rather than, as in the Greek case, perverse homosexual love) is substituted for the libidinous love of women.
The emergence of Courtly Love, then, represented the beginning of a radical change in the cultural attitude toward the female. Man's love for women, so long overshadowed and negated by his contempt for her, was given expression in a system of social relations. That this expression of love and elevation of the status of women was accomplished only through a denial of ambivalence in no way minimizes the immensity of the cultural achievement. Courtly Love, in being established as a social institution, gave dignity and moral justification to tender feelings and allowed the object of man's affection to be treated with a respect commensurate to the depth of his attachment to her. And love, formerly thought of as an aberration, was clearly defined and given cultural sanction. For the next ten centuries men could, shamelessly and gracefully, fall in love.
While the Greek and Christian solutions consisted of efforts to institutionalize man's fear and hostility toward women, Courtly Love represented the institutional elaboration of his love. And in its acceptance of tender feelings it represented a resolution of the Oedipus complex which was on a higher level. If this tenderness could only be achieved through the denial of all negative emotions and if it was not fused with sexual consummation, it is another way of saying that the culture of which Courtly Love was symptomatic had not achieved full genitality.
PART 9
The implications of this study can be examined only briefly here: We have established, with a high degree of probability, that, whatever the socio-economic variables that produced the conditions which proved to be conducive to the emergence of Courtly Love, these conditions were in no way responsible for the form which it took. Its structure was rooted in unconscious conflict. An infantile phantasy was projected upon a reality system, and this phantasy came to define that reality system.
It is not unlikely that the ultimate rapprochement between sociology, history, and psychoanalysis will involve the identification of the infantile roots of social institutions, and the study of the unconscious determinants of their transformations. Geza Roheim's pioneer work in primitive cultures has yet to be generalized to the projective systems of Western culture.*
* Working from disciplines outside of social science, Norman O. Brown in Life Against Death and Leslie Fiedler in Love and Death in the American Novel, have done the initial studies in this direction. Brown, approaching the problem theoretically, has developed the idea of culture as a medium for the projection and mastery of infantile phantasy; Fiedler, tackling a concrete issue, has traced the transformation in Oedipal phantasies as they have been projected in the main stream of Western and particularly American literature.
References
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13 Capellanus, Andreas. The Art of Courtly Love. New York: Prederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1959, p. 154.
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25 Plutarch. Selected Essays: On Love, The Family and The Good Life. New York: The New American Library, 1957, p. 15.